This comprehensive summary chronologically details the pivotal events of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution, culminating in the resignation of Hosni Mubarak as the fourth President of Egypt on 11 February 2011. This monumental uprising fundamentally reshaped Egypt's political landscape, ending decades of authoritarian rule.

The Genesis of a Revolution: From Mubarak's Rule to Popular Uprising

For three decades, from 1981 until his ouster in 2011, Hosni Mubarak governed Egypt under a state of emergency law. This pervasive legislation, continually renewed throughout his tenure, severely curtailed civil liberties, stifled political dissent, and empowered the government with exceptional powers, including the ability to detain individuals without charge and suppress public gatherings. Public discontent simmered beneath the surface, exacerbated by the growing perception that Mubarak's son, Gamal Mubarak, was being groomed as a likely successor to the presidency, raising concerns about a dynastic transfer of power and further entrenching the existing regime.

The catalyst for widespread unrest in the Arab world, which became known as the "Arab Spring," emerged in December 2010. Protests ignited in Tunisia following the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi, a street vendor protesting police harassment and confiscation of his wares. This act of desperation quickly escalated into a nationwide revolution, inspiring similar movements across the region. In Egypt, a parallel rallying point for activists emerged from the tragic death of Khaled Saeed in June 2010. Saeed, a young Egyptian man, died under suspicious circumstances after being allegedly beaten by police in Alexandria. His death sparked outrage and galvanized a nascent online activist movement, particularly through the "We Are All Khaled Said" Facebook page, which became a powerful symbol of police brutality and a focal point for calls for reform.

Leveraging the burgeoning reach of social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter, Egyptian activists meticulously organized and disseminated plans for a nationwide protest. These digital networks proved instrumental in overcoming state censorship and coordination challenges, enabling a diverse array of youth groups, intellectuals, and ordinary citizens to unite around a common goal: a massive demonstration scheduled for 25 January 2011. This date was strategically chosen to coincide with Egypt's annual "Police Day" holiday, transforming a celebration of law enforcement into a powerful statement against systemic police brutality and human rights abuses that had become synonymous with Mubarak's regime.

The Revolution Unfolds: Tahrir Square and Government Response

On 25 January 2011, millions of Egyptians answered the call, pouring into major cities across the country, with Cairo's iconic Tahrir Square becoming the undisputed epicenter of the burgeoning revolution. Initially, tensions were exceptionally high, leading to violent confrontations between protesters and security forces, particularly in the port city of Suez and the Mediterranean city of Alexandria. The government swiftly adopted a hardline stance, deploying riot-control tactics, including tear gas, water cannons, and rubber bullets, to disperse crowds. In an unprecedented move to quell the uprising and disrupt activist communication, the regime also initiated a near-total shutdown of internet access and mobile phone networks across the country, effectively isolating Egypt from the digital world.

Despite these severe measures, the protests not only persisted but intensified. By 28 January, widely known as the "Friday of Rage," the scale of demonstrations had overwhelmed the police force, leading to their retreat from the streets. The security vacuum was then filled by the military, which, unlike the police, was initially perceived by many protesters as a more neutral or even sympathetic institution. This shift marked a critical turning point; from this moment onward, the situation in the protest areas, particularly Tahrir Square, remained largely peaceful, as the military generally refrained from direct confrontation with demonstrators.

As the popular pressure on President Mubarak mounted relentlessly, the size and scope of the protests continued to expand, particularly during specially organized mass rallies held on Fridays following congregational prayers. These "million-man marches" underscored the depth of public dissatisfaction and the widespread demand for systemic change.

Mubarak's Concessions and Ultimate Downfall

In an attempt to appease the escalating demonstrations, Mubarak initially offered a series of significant concessions. These included the dissolution of the widely criticized parliament, which was seen as illegitimate, and a commitment to oversee a process of constitutional and political reform. He also publicly pledged not to seek reelection in the presidential elections scheduled for September 2011. However, these gestures were deemed insufficient by the protesters, whose primary demand had evolved beyond mere reform to the complete overthrow of the regime and Mubarak's immediate resignation. By 8 February, widespread calls for his stepping down reverberated across the nation.

The tension reached a fever pitch on the night of 10 February when it was widely anticipated that Mubarak would announce his resignation during a televised speech. Instead, he declared his intention to merely delegate some of his presidential powers to Vice President Omar Suleiman, while remaining in office. This defiant stance ignited a fresh wave of outrage and disappointment among protesters, who felt betrayed. The very next day, 11 February 2011, amidst overwhelming pressure from the streets and within the military establishment, Hosni Mubarak finally resigned, bringing an end to his three-decade rule and ushering in a new, uncertain chapter for Egypt.

The 2011 Egyptian Revolution: A Detailed Look

The 2011 Egyptian Revolution, also widely known as the 25 January Revolution (Arabic: Thawrat khamsa wa-ʿišrūn yanāyir), officially commenced on 25 January 2011 and swiftly spread across the entirety of Egypt. This historic movement encompassed a wide array of protest tactics, including massive demonstrations, organized marches, strategic occupations of prominent public plazas like Tahrir Square, sustained acts of non-violent civil resistance, deliberate civil disobedience, and widespread labor strikes. Millions of ordinary citizens, representing a broad spectrum of socio-economic classes and religious affiliations, united in their collective demand for the immediate overthrow of President Hosni Mubarak's authoritarian regime.

The revolution was not without its human cost. Violent clashes between security forces and protesters resulted in tragic casualties, with at least 846 people killed and over 6,000 injured. In a stark display of popular anger and retaliation against long-standing police brutality, protesters set fire to more than 90 police stations across the country, symbolizing the breakdown of state authority and public trust in law enforcement.

Core Grievances and Demands

The grievances of the Egyptian protesters were multifaceted, encompassing both deep-seated legal and political issues, as well as pressing economic concerns. Key drivers of the uprising included:

• Police Brutality: Systemic abuses, torture, and extrajudicial killings by security forces were a major catalyst, epitomized by the death of Khaled Saeed.
• State of Emergency Laws: The continuous imposition of emergency laws for over 30 years had effectively suspended constitutional rights, enabling arbitrary arrests and suppressing freedoms.
• Lack of Political Freedom and Civil Liberties: Citizens were deprived of genuine political participation, freedom of assembly, and freedom of expression, with dissent often met with repression.
• Corruption: Pervasive corruption within the government and its institutions, including cronyism and illicit enrichment by regime insiders, fueled public resentment.
• High Unemployment: A significant segment of the population, particularly educated youth, faced severe unemployment, leading to widespread frustration and despair.
• Food-Price Inflation and Low Wages: Soaring food prices coupled with stagnant low wages disproportionately affected low-income families, exacerbating economic hardship.

The overarching and primary demand of the protesters was unequivocally the end of the Mubarak regime, believing that only a complete overhaul could address these deep-rooted issues. Strikes organized by various labor unions throughout the country significantly amplified the pressure on government officials, demonstrating the widespread discontent beyond just political activists.

During the intense period of the uprising, the capital city, Cairo, was frequently described as resembling "a war zone" due to the scale of confrontations and the pervasive atmosphere of unrest. The port city of Suez, known for its strategic importance, also witnessed frequent and often violent clashes between demonstrators and security forces. Protesters defiantly disregarded a government-imposed curfew, which the overwhelmed police and military forces found themselves unable to effectively enforce. Gradually, Egypt's Central Security Forces, widely perceived as fiercely loyal to Mubarak, were replaced by military troops, whose more disciplined and initially less aggressive posture helped de-escalate some of the direct confrontations. Amidst the chaos, reports emerged of widespread looting, which, according to opposition sources, was allegedly instigated by plainclothes police officers, further destabilizing the situation. In response, civilian vigilante groups were spontaneously organized by residents to protect their neighborhoods and property from rampant lawlessness.

Transition and Aftermath: From SCAF to Morsi and El-Sisi

On 11 February 2011, Vice President Omar Suleiman, whom Mubarak had appointed just weeks prior as a concession, formally announced that Hosni Mubarak had resigned as president. Power was subsequently transferred to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF), Egypt's highest military body. The military junta, effectively headed by its chairman, Field Marshal Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, swiftly announced on 13 February that the existing constitution was suspended, both houses of parliament dissolved, and that the military would govern the country for an interim period of six months, until new elections could be held. The previous cabinet, including Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik, was instructed to serve as a caretaker government until a new civilian administration could be formed.

Following the revolution against Mubarak and the subsequent interim period of military rule under the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, Egypt embarked on a path towards civilian governance and democratic elections. The Muslim Brotherhood, a long-suppressed Islamist movement, emerged as a dominant political force, leveraging its well-organized grassroots network. Through a series of popular elections, Egyptians elected Mohamed Morsi, a candidate from the Muslim Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party, to the presidency in June 2012, defeating Ahmed Shafik, Mubarak's last prime minister. This marked a historic moment as Morsi became Egypt's first democratically elected civilian president.

However, Morsi's presidency was short-lived and fraught with controversy. His government encountered fierce opposition, particularly after his attempts to push through a new, Islamic-leaning constitution, which many secularists and liberals viewed as divisive and undermining the country's civil identity. A pivotal moment of contention arose when Morsi issued a temporary presidential decree in November 2012 that effectively shielded his decisions from judicial review, sparking widespread outrage from the judiciary, secular opposition, and members of the military who saw it as an authoritarian power grab. This action, intended to fast-track the controversial constitution, galvanized mass protests against his rule, culminating in massive demonstrations on 28 June 2013, on the anniversary of his inauguration.

On 3 July 2013, amid widespread public discontent and massive anti-Morsi protests, President Morsi was deposed by a coup d'état led by his Minister of Defense, General Abdel Fattah El-Sisi. Millions of Egyptians took to the streets in support of this military intervention, demanding early presidential elections. El-Sisi subsequently emerged as a dominant political figure, and after an election in 2014, which was largely boycotted by opposition parties, he went on to become Egypt's president, consolidating military-backed rule once more.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Egyptian Revolution

What were the primary causes of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution?

The revolution was fueled by a confluence of factors, including decades of authoritarian rule under emergency law, widespread police brutality, a lack of political freedom and civil liberties, pervasive government corruption, high youth unemployment, and rising food prices coupled with low wages.

How did social media contribute to the revolution?

Social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter were crucial tools for activists to organize protests, disseminate information, coordinate actions, and mobilize millions of Egyptians, circumventing state censorship and traditional media controls.

What was the significance of Tahrir Square?

Tahrir Square in Cairo became the symbolic and actual epicenter of the revolution, serving as a persistent protest camp where millions gathered daily, creating a powerful visual representation of the popular uprising and a focal point for international media attention.

What role did the military play during and after the revolution?

Initially, the military was seen as relatively neutral, taking over security roles after the police retreated and largely avoiding confrontation with protesters. After Mubarak's resignation, the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF) assumed interim control. The military later played a decisive role in deposing President Morsi in 2013, leading to the rise of General Abdel Fattah El-Sisi to the presidency.

Why did Mohamed Morsi's presidency face such strong opposition?

Morsi's presidency faced widespread opposition due to attempts to push through an Islamic-leaning constitution, a controversial presidential decree that shielded his decisions from judicial review, and concerns about the Muslim Brotherhood's consolidation of power, which alienated secularists, liberals, and elements within the judiciary and military.