The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878: A Defining Conflict in European History

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, known in Turkish as "93 Harbi" (literally 'War of ’93', referencing the year 1293 in the Islamic Rumi calendar, which corresponds to 1877 in the Gregorian calendar) and in Russian as "Русско-турецкая война" (Russko-turetskaya voyna, "Russian–Turkish war"), was a pivotal conflict that reshaped the geopolitical landscape of Southeast Europe. This significant confrontation pitted the declining Ottoman Empire against a formidable coalition led by the Russian Empire. This coalition primarily consisted of newly emerging Balkan states with strong Eastern Orthodox Christian ties, including the principalities of Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, all of whom sought greater autonomy or full independence from Ottoman rule.

Key Causes and Underlying Factors of the War

The war's origins were multifaceted, deeply rooted in the complex dynamics of 19th-century European politics, the decline of the Ottoman Empire, and burgeoning nationalistic aspirations within the Balkans.

• Emerging Balkan Nationalism: A primary catalyst was the fervent rise of nationalism among the Christian populations of the Ottoman-ruled Balkans. After centuries of Ottoman domination, peoples like the Bulgarians, Serbs, Romanians, and Montenegrins increasingly yearned for self-determination and national sovereignty. Preceding events, such as the Herzegovina Uprising of 1875 and the brutal suppression of the April Uprising in Bulgaria in 1876, fueled international outrage and intensified calls for intervention.
• Russian Strategic Objectives: The Russian Empire harbored several long-standing geopolitical ambitions that converged in this conflict. These included:
  • Reclaiming Lost Territory and Influence: Russia sought to reverse the limitations imposed by the Treaty of Paris (1856) following its defeat in the Crimean War (1853–1856), which had severely restricted its naval presence in the Black Sea and its influence over the Ottoman Empire.
  • Pan-Slavism and Religious Solidarity: Driven by Pan-Slavist ideology, Russia positioned itself as the protector of Orthodox Christian Slavs under Ottoman rule. This ideology provided a moral and political justification for intervention, fostering solidarity with the Balkan populations.
  • Control over the Straits: Gaining control or significant influence over the Turkish Straits (Bosphorus and Dardanelles) to ensure unhindered access to the Mediterranean Sea remained a strategic priority for Russia.
• The Eastern Question: The war was an integral part of the broader "Eastern Question," which referred to the diplomatic and political problems posed by the decay of the Ottoman Empire and the scramble among European Great Powers to fill the resulting power vacuum. The declining Ottoman authority created opportunities for external intervention and internal revolts.

The Course and Outcome of the Conflict

The war was primarily fought on two main fronts: in the Balkans, where the most significant land campaigns took place, and in the Caucasus region. The Russian-led coalition demonstrated superior military prowess, particularly after the prolonged Siege of Plevna, which was a turning point. Russian and allied forces pushed the Ottomans relentlessly, advancing deep into Ottoman territory, ultimately reaching the very gates of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), the Ottoman capital. This rapid advance triggered alarm among the Western European Great Powers, particularly Great Britain and Austria-Hungary, who feared an excessive expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans and the potential collapse of the Ottoman Empire, which could upset the European balance of power.

Major Consequences and the Geopolitical Shift

The conclusion of the war brought about profound changes to the map of Southeast Europe, primarily through two significant diplomatic instruments: the Treaty of San Stefano and the subsequent Congress of Berlin.

• Territorial Gains for Russia: As a direct result of its victory, Russia succeeded in annexing strategically important provinces in the Caucasus, namely Kars and Batum, enhancing its control over the region. Russia also regained the Budjak region in Bessarabia, which it had lost after the Crimean War.
• Formal Independence for Balkan States: The principalities of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, which had already enjoyed significant de facto sovereignty for several years, formally proclaimed their full independence from the Ottoman Empire. This marked a monumental step in their national histories.
• The Emergence of an Autonomous Bulgaria: After nearly five centuries of Ottoman domination (approximately 1396–1878), an autonomous Bulgarian state, the Principality of Bulgaria, emerged on the map. This was a direct result of Russian military intervention and diplomatic support. The initial boundaries set by the preliminary Treaty of San Stefano were vast, encompassing lands between the Danube River and the Balkan Mountains, as well as the region of Sofia, which became the new state's capital. However, these ambitious borders were later significantly curtailed by the Congress of Berlin.
• The Congress of Berlin (1878): Convened by the European Great Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Great Britain, Italy, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire), the Congress of Berlin aimed to revise the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano, which was perceived as creating an overly large and Russian-influenced Bulgaria. The key outcomes included:
  • The Principality of Bulgaria was established as an autonomous but still nominally Ottoman vassal state, with much smaller territory than initially planned.
  • Eastern Rumelia was created as an autonomous Ottoman province with a Christian governor, separating it from the new Bulgarian principality.
  • Macedonia remained under direct Ottoman rule.
  • Austria-Hungary was granted the right to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina, effectively bringing these regions under Austro-Hungarian influence without formally annexing them.
  • Great Britain gained control over the island of Cyprus, further solidifying its strategic presence in the Eastern Mediterranean.

The Treaty of San Stefano and its Legacy

The initial Treaty of San Stefano, signed on 3 March 1878, represented a triumphant moment for the Russian Empire and a significant step towards the liberation of the Balkan peoples. In Bulgaria, this date is revered and celebrated annually as "Liberation Day" (Ден на Освобождението), commemorating the country's freedom from Ottoman rule. Although the significance of this occasion somewhat diminished during the years of Communist rule in Bulgaria, which often prioritized the narrative of Soviet-led internationalism over national liberation, it has since been fully restored as a cornerstone of Bulgarian national identity.

The Liberation of Sofia: A Pivotal Moment

The Battle of Sofia (Bulgarian: Битката при София, Bitkata pri Sofia), fought in January 1878, was a crucial military engagement during the Russo-Turkish War. It represented the culmination of the successful winter campaign conducted by the Russian Western Detachment, led by the distinguished General Iosif Gurko. After overcoming immense challenges, including a formidable winter crossing of the Balkan Mountains (Stara Planina) in harsh conditions, Gurko's forces aimed to decisively defeat the Ottoman Orhaniye army. The successful battle led directly to the Liberation of Sofia from Turkish rule on January 4, 1878 (January 23, 1878, new style). This victory was strategically vital, opening the path for the rapid Russian advance towards Philippopolis (Plovdiv) and Adrianople (Edirne), further accelerating the collapse of Ottoman resistance and ultimately leading to the armistice that preceded the Treaty of San Stefano.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878

What were the main reasons for the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878?

The primary reasons included the rise of nationalism among Balkan Christian populations seeking independence from the Ottoman Empire, Russia's desire to regain influence lost after the Crimean War and re-establish its Black Sea naval presence, and a broader European geopolitical struggle over the "Eastern Question," concerning the decline of the Ottoman Empire.

Which countries were involved in the conflict?

The main belligerents were the Ottoman Empire on one side, and a coalition led by the Russian Empire, supported by the newly independent or autonomous Balkan states of Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro.

What was the significance of the Treaty of San Stefano?

Signed on March 3, 1878, the Treaty of San Stefano initially proposed a large, autonomous Bulgarian state, granted full independence to Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, and ceded territories to Russia. It is celebrated as Liberation Day in Bulgaria, although its terms were largely revised by the subsequent Congress of Berlin.

Why was the Congress of Berlin convened after the war?

The European Great Powers, particularly Great Britain and Austria-Hungary, were concerned that the Treaty of San Stefano granted too much power and territory to Russia and created an overly large Bulgarian state, potentially disrupting the balance of power in Europe. The Congress of Berlin aimed to revise these terms and redefine the new political map of the Balkans.

What were the key outcomes of the Congress of Berlin?

The Congress of Berlin significantly reduced the territory of the proposed Bulgarian state, divided it into the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia, confirmed the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, allowed Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, and granted Cyprus to Great Britain. It aimed to maintain a delicate balance of power among the European empires.

What was the "93 Harbi"?

"93 Harbi" is the Turkish name for the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. It refers to the year 1293 in the Islamic Rumi calendar, which corresponds to the Gregorian year 1877 when the war began.

Why is the Battle of Sofia important?

The Battle of Sofia was a decisive victory for Russian forces under General Iosif Gurko in January 1878. It led to the liberation of Sofia from Ottoman rule and was a crucial step in the Russian advance towards the Ottoman capital, effectively paving the way for the end of the war.