Umberto I, born Umberto Rainerio Carlo Emanuele Giovanni Maria Ferdinando Eugenio di Savoia on 14 March 1844 in Turin, Piedmont-Sardinia, was a pivotal figure in modern Italian history. As a member of the venerable House of Savoy, he served as the King of Italy from 9 January 1878 until his tragic assassination on 29 July 1900. Succeeding his father, Victor Emmanuel II—the first king of a unified Italy—Umberto’s 22-year reign, often referred to as the Umbertine Era, was marked by significant domestic challenges, an evolving European political landscape, and ambitious foreign policy initiatives.

Foreign Policy and Colonial Ambitions of Umberto I

During Umberto I's rule, Italy actively pursued a strategy of colonial expansion, driven by a desire for international prestige, access to raw materials, and a "place in the sun" alongside other established European powers during the late 19th century's intense "Scramble for Africa."

• Acquisition of Territories: Italy successfully established colonies in the Horn of Africa. This included the formal acquisition of Eritrea in 1890, consolidating earlier Italian presence, and the gradual control of parts of Somalia, primarily along the Benadir Coast, which later became Italian Somaliland. These territories were seen as crucial for Italy to assert itself as a major European power on the global stage.
• The Battle of Adwa (1896): Despite these initial colonial gains, Italy faced a profound military setback at the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896. In this historic engagement, Italian forces were decisively defeated by the army of Emperor Menelik II of Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia). This monumental loss represented a rare instance of an African nation repelling a major European power, effectively halting Italy's expansionist ambitions in the region. The defeat at Adwa deeply impacted Italian national morale, led to widespread public outcry, and resulted in government crises, compelling Italy to recognize Abyssinian sovereignty through the Treaty of Addis Ababa.

The Triple Alliance: A Strategic Pact

A cornerstone of Umberto I's foreign policy was his approval in 1882 of Italy's entry into the Triple Alliance, a defensive military pact with the German Empire and Austria-Hungary. This alliance, initially conceived as a measure against potential French aggression and to counter Italy's diplomatic isolation following the Congress of Berlin in 1878, aimed to secure Italy's position in the complex European power balance. The Triple Alliance significantly shaped European geopolitics leading up to World War I, although Italy eventually joined the Entente Powers in 1915, highlighting the shifting alliances of the period.

Domestic Unrest and Public Discontent

Umberto I's reign was characterized by growing social and political tensions within Italy. His conservative stance and perceived support for repressive governmental measures alienated a significant portion of the population, particularly within leftist circles, which included socialists, republicans, and anarchists. These groups increasingly viewed the monarchy as an obstacle to essential social justice, economic equality, and democratic reforms, leading to widespread discontent and civil unrest.

The Bava-Beccaris Massacre: A Defining Moment of Repression

A pivotal event that irrevocably cemented public animosity towards King Umberto I was the Bava-Beccaris massacre. In May 1898, widespread protests erupted in Milan due to severe economic hardship, primarily driven by soaring bread prices and high unemployment. When these demonstrations turned violent, martial law was declared, and General Fiorenzo Bava-Beccaris ordered his troops to fire indiscriminately into the unarmed crowds. This brutal repression resulted in hundreds of deaths and injuries, a stark demonstration of state violence against its own citizens. King Umberto I's subsequent act of decorating General Bava-Beccaris with the Grand Cross of the Order of Savoy for "courage and energy" was widely condemned across Italy and internationally. This perceived direct endorsement of the violence deeply intensified hatred for the monarchy among progressive and working-class movements, making him a primary target for revolutionary groups.

Assassination Attempts and the Tragic End of Umberto I

The deep-seated resentment against Umberto I, particularly from radical anarchist factions, manifested in multiple assassination attempts throughout his reign, underscoring the volatile political climate of the late 19th century.

• First Attempt (1878): Barely a year into his kingship, on 17 November 1878, an anarchist named Giovanni Passannante attempted to stab him during a visit to Naples. The king was only lightly wounded, but the incident highlighted the early hostility and fragility of the newly unified kingdom’s monarchy.
• Final Assassination (1900): The tragic culmination of this animosity occurred on 29 July 1900, precisely two years after the infamous Bava-Beccaris massacre. While attending an athletic event in Monza, north of Milan, King Umberto I was shot four times and killed by Gaetano Bresci, an Italian-American anarchist who had traveled from Paterson, New Jersey, specifically for this purpose. Bresci explicitly stated his motive was to avenge the victims of the Milan massacre and liberate the people from oppression. Bresci's act, while condemned by many governments and sections of society, was celebrated by some anarchist circles as a revolutionary statement against state authority and repression, sending shockwaves across Europe and drawing global attention to the rising tide of anarchist violence targeting heads of state during this era.

Frequently Asked Questions about Umberto I

When was Umberto I King of Italy?

Umberto I reigned as King of Italy from 9 January 1878 until his assassination on 29 July 1900.

What were Umberto I's key foreign policy decisions?

His reign saw significant colonial expansion efforts in the Horn of Africa, leading to the acquisition of Eritrea and parts of Somalia. He also approved Italy's entry into the Triple Alliance with the German Empire and Austria-Hungary in 1882, a major defensive pact.

Why was Umberto I unpopular with some groups?

Umberto I was widely disliked by leftist circles, including anarchists and socialists, due to his conservative policies and, most notably, his perceived endorsement of the Bava-Beccaris massacre in Milan in May 1898, where government troops fired on unarmed protesters. His decoration of General Fiorenzo Bava-Beccaris intensified public animosity.

Who assassinated Umberto I and why?

King Umberto I was assassinated by the anarchist Gaetano Bresci on 29 July 1900 in Monza. Bresci stated his motive was to avenge the victims of the Bava-Beccaris massacre, for which King Umberto I had publicly honored the commanding general, symbolizing state repression.

What was the significance of the Battle of Adwa during Umberto I's reign?

The Battle of Adwa in 1896 represented a major military defeat for Italy against the forces of Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia) under Emperor Menelik II. It was a rare and significant instance of a European colonial power being decisively defeated by an African army, leading to a re-evaluation of Italy's colonial ambitions and impacting national pride.